Rhetoric for Innovative Education

Output 2 Online Course in Rhetoric

Learning module

The model from reading to effective speech delivery

• Traditional and modern rhetorical paradigm

• The model from reading to effective speech delivery

• Speech structure: techniques and approaches. Practical assignments

• Presentations. Practical assignments

• Media rhetoric. Practical assignments

• Podcast. Practical assignments

• Business meeting. Practical assignments

• Sample model for preparation, implementation and evaluation

• Bibliography

The model from reading to effective pronunciation

The model from reading to speaking to writing to preparing public appearances in business and society.

First:

Reading speeches – optional or indicated by the instructor. These are found primarily from online resources, but also from handbooks, memoirs, biographies, etc.

The reading may be of speeches translated by professional translators or by students.

Second:

Writing speeches – the pedagogical principles from the familiar to the unfamiliar, from the easy to the difficult are followed.

The skills of structuring, reasoning and verbally embellishing speeches are gradually formed.

One of the recommendations is to start from solemn speeches and from everyday eloquence: toasts, speeches and words delivered at anniversaries, family celebrations, weddings, etc. One can then move on to formal occasions and to epideictic, e.g. receiving an Oscar, lifetime achievement awards for writers, poets, artists, musicians, screenwriters, directors, etc.

The next stage is to attempt to write texts of informing, instructing, motivating, criticizing speeches. It is possible to create texts and make speeches on them with different purposes: uplifting, calling, inspiring, guiding or instructing, etc.

Skills for significant public appearances are gradually developed, for example as part of conceptual political rhetoric: official statements and addresses. Political speeches to party members, during election campaigns or speeches at international forums can also be related here. In the cases of official political rhetoric, there is already the involvement of the speechmakers and the team if the speaker is a top manager, president, minister.

Rhetorical canons apply here: searching and selecting material, forming skills in stages.

Figure 9. Finding and selecting information in speech preparation

Selection by criteria important – unimportant; significant – insignificant, priority – secondary

Speech structure: techniques and approaches. Practical assignments

The introduction of a speech can perform different functions. Depending on this, possible structuring techniques are given below. It is important to say that they are of a situational use and do not always guarantee the same success, because it depends on the speaker and his skills to speak in front of a specific audience. The speaker may aim to inform the audience, and then turn to the use of certain devices: quotation, factoids, authorities. The speaker may seek to excite, motivate, inspire the audience, and then the emotions of the audience are to be appealed to, and this involves more pathos and appropriate means. The speaker may want to combine information with instruction and then the rhetorical devices are different. The speaker aims to create a positive atmosphere at events of a personal, business and public nature, and then he turns to other rhetorical and communicative techniques.

• Identify the genre of the speech. Analyse the audience you will be speaking to. Formulate objectives starting from the speaker’s position. Research the situation, the event, the occasion, the setting, the circumstances, the audience’s attitudes and characteristics, etc.

• Write the introduction. Choose which rhetorical techniques are appropriate for the speech. Find other rhetorical techniques and devices when writing the introduction of the speech.

Figure 10. Rhetorical and communicative techniques used in the introduction

Main part

There are various principles and recommendations known from antiquity that are the basis of good speech structuring. One such classical model is an introduction, main body and conclusion.

We present a different version.

It is reasonable to begin with an address or addresses to individual members of theaudience, observing here the principles of diplomatic, state or business/business etiquette and protocol. In informal communication, the address is brief and without detailed differentiation of the audience into groups. A similar approach of general address to the audience is found in TED presentations.

Our recommendation is that addresses be worded, prepared and tested for impact, or for errors, or for inappropriate sounding, or for excessive pathos, or for unacceptable templating of phrases and expressions. These expressions are in fact appeals, and messages, and they may be at the end of each speech or phased into it. This is because they take into account the life stream or post-communication stage when speeches are disseminated in the media, online media and social networks. Journalists have the mindset to extract what is important from the speech, and sometimes it is in these appeals.

It is then reasonable to prepare the introduction, main body and conclusion in stages.

Below are some of the popular techniques for structuring the speech and for preparing the concluding words.

The main body is interesting in that it combines arguments, rhetorical figures and tropes, and psychological techniques. This part may have different structural features, presented below in the Online Rhetoric Course.

Figure 11. Basic elements in speech structure

The conclusion

Closing a speech and creating an effect at the end are essential to any speech. Preparation must be serious. If the speaker is speaking to a business audience and has made the important points in the introduction, in the conclusion he should summarize what has been said. The speaker can possibly make predictions for future projects and collaborations. If the speech is exhortative and uplifting, it is reasonable to have appeals in the conclusion, possibly quotations from celebrities or from literary works. If it is to reduce tension in a crisis situation or in protests to contain the escalation of emotions, then the rhetorical techniques are different. If one is speaking at a party event or at one during an election campaign, then virtual personal presentations of the candidates are prepared. Such presentations require pathetic expressions or laconic summaries of the candidate’s qualities. Some are given below in the figure.

Figure 12. Rhetorical and communicative techniques used in the conclusion

Assignments to students:

Write the conclusion. Formulate the messages, the appeals. Make a spectacular end to the speech. Choose which rhetorical techniques are appropriate for the speech.

Choose which option for the main body is appropriate to the genre, purpose, audience, situation, occasion, experience of the speaker. Write a first option.

Edit the text of the speech.

Rehearse the speech first by reading, then by supporting phrases in the text, and finally by speaking.

There are different options for structuring speech. Some of them are presented briefly and through figures below.

The first one is called pyramid. The speaker starts with the less significant, moves on to more important facts and allocates a central place – in the middle of the speech – for the most important. This model is suitable for speakers with little experience and allows in the middle of the speech to concentrate and communicate what is important. It also assumes that the audience’s attention is not exhausted yet, but is waning, and so information is communicated that complements that which is most essential from the middle of the speech.

Figure 13. Structure of speech according to the Pyramid model

In the concentric circle model there are several variants.

One is to start from the general to the particular, e.g. with definitions and clarification of concepts, and then to present arguments, facts and go into depth into the issues in stages. In this way, a terminological matrix emerges, completeness and comprehensiveness are achieved. This is an appropriate model for academic communication in scientific circles or for public communication in international organisations.

The second option is again to start from the general to the particular, for example by clarifying what ecology is; then moving on to outlining factors and violations of environmental norms and only at the next ’round’ moving on to presenting ways to overcome them, and so on. In this way there is a logical structure and one goes into depth into the subject matter and issues.

This is an appropriate model of speaking to educated people who occupy decision-making positions and prefer clarity in presentation and completeness in information.

Figure 14. Structure of speech according to the “Concentric Circle” model

In the chronology and anaphoric information presentation model, years are presented first. Then specific information is given. Starting with facts, the speech moves on to phenomena, processes and trends. Successes, achievements, sustainability are then reported.

This approach is appropriate when reporting on projects or individual stages of business plans to internal and external audiences, to evaluation committees.

Figure 15. Structure of the Chronology model speech

In the ascending ladder model, speeches are prepared and delivered in which emotion and pathos dominate.

These are speeches with different functions: exhorting, inspiring, motivating, agitating, harangue, praising, thanking, etc. They are delivered on solemn occasions of personal and public nature.

These are also speeches that are delivered in times of war, protests, demonstrations, etc.

Figure 16. Speech structure according to the “Ascending Ladder” model

In the three theses/arguments-three arguments model, speeches are prepared and delivered in which there is a balance between emotion, logos and ethos.

These are speeches with different functions, but the main ones are informing and persuading.

These speeches are delivered on business occasions as well as at various public and business events etc.

Figure 17. Structure of the speech according to the model “Three theses/claims by three arguments”

Websites for reading, pronouncing, preparing, writing and delivering speeches

– A useful website is How to Write a Speech http://www.write-out-loud.com/howtowritespeech.html. It has permanent links and useful information on how to write and deliver different types of speeches and what the speaker’s behaviour should be.

– Variations of speeches and guidance on how to write and deliver them can be found and read at My Speech Class – Writing the Conclusion of a Speech – http://www.speech-writers.com/?gclid=CLec_NDaoqMCFQQgZwodVhwH3w.

– Useful and very well-structured information is provided at http://www.speech-topics-help.com/ways-to-end-a-speech.html. Again, the information here is useful for self-study or for reference in the presence of permanent links, well-presented tips and samples.

– Business speeches can be found, seen, listened to and read at https://www.trendhunter.com/course/business-model-presentation.

– The Insider website has samples of speeches too. 18 valuable pieces of advice from the best graduation speeches of all time. Rachel Gillett, Richard Feloni , and Erin McDowell Jun 15, 2021, 4:42 PM. https://www.businessinsider.com/the-best-graduation-speeches-of-all-time-2016-6.

– Sample speeches can be found on Vogue’s website. Culture. 16 Best Graduation Speeches That Leave a Lasting Impression Inspiration from the best commencement speeches ever. Kristi Kellogg, Noor Brara, April 17, 2020. https://www.teenvogue.com/story/best-graduation-speeches-examples-ideas.

– Another well-established media outlet like CNN features some of the best speeches given by celebrities at college and university graduation ceremonies.

– From Obama to Steve Jobs: The greatest commencement speeches of all time. Tom Page and Sana Noor Haq, CNN. Updated 1029 GMT (1829 HKT) May 13, 021, https://edition.cnn.com/2021/05/13/world/most-memorable-commencement-speeches-spc-intl/index.html.

– A media outlet of the stature of Forbes publishes speeches of this genre, again following tradition and recognizing their importance in contemporary society and in the academic tradition. The Best Commencement Speeches Of 2020. May 16, 2020,10:57pm https://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2020/05/16/the-best-commencement-speeches-of-2020/.

– Traditions continue, and a medium like Future – Finance also includes samples of such speeches: The 10 best graduation speeches ever. https://www.futurefinance.com/blog/the-10-best-graduation-speeches-ever/.

– Videos of speeches at the Grammy Awards and the Academy Awards. Elle magazine has published 15 Of The Most Iconic And Memorable Oscars Acceptance Speeches Of All Time. From the hilarious to the tear-jerkers. Olivia Blair. 04/23/2021/. https://www.elle.com/uk/life-and-culture/a36197012/oscars-speeches/.

• It is evident that words spoken at events in various fields (business, science, education) can be seen and heard on various websites. They can be read at the initial stage of training, and at a later stage, in the rhetorical studies part, they can also be the object of analysis.

Presentations

Practical assignments

Assignments to students:

Simulation and role play. Creating an atmosphere close to the real one.

Determine the type of presentation according to different criteria: objectives, functions, areas of application, subject, channel, status quo of the presenter, characteristics of the audience.

For example:

The subject/topic of the presentation may be a stage of a business project.

The presenter is part of the implementation team.

The audience is internal and evaluative; it is composed of managers; it is critical.

The objectives are to objectively and persuasively present what has been achieved, to point out gaps and mistakes and to make suggestions for improving the project. The presentation is informative and persuasive; the focus is not on image.

The channel is direct, a room in the company office.

The presentation is vertically ascending: from employees to managers. The audience makes decisions on how to proceed with the project at levels of funding, finalization, market positioning.

In such an analysis, it is assumed that the presentation should be according to the standards, company culture and traditions of the company/business organization. It is dominated by substantive arguments, factual arguments, no verbosity and an abundance of rhetorical techniques. It includes verbal and visual elements. It was probably sent to attendees in advance in a more extended version and in direct communication a shorter version may be presented. This requires preparation and text to accompany the slides, diagrams, tables, maps, infographics.

In the case study presented above, this requires a very concise introduction and presentation of information in a clear, structured, logical manner.

The presenter needs to be prepared to answer potential questions, especially on the part of how mistakes were made and how to solve the problems, be clear on timing, people, quality, etc.

Rehearsal and preparation require a serious commitment from the presenter, as his/her presentation is representative in nature, and the goal is to persuade with credible facts and clear reasoning.

Following the 3 T’s principle can be helpful:

• In the introduction: 1 T. Tell them what you want to tell them.

• In the main body: 2 T. Tell it to them – clearly, precisely, logically persuasively.

• In the conclusion: 3 T. Tell them what you told them – logical and justified conclusions, propositions and perspectives.

Assignments to students:

Stage preparation:

Analysis according to the specified criteria, preparation of the slides and the script. Preparation of answers to potential questions.

Implementation stage:

Presentation to the audience. It is complex and requires:

– High degree of concentration between the information, contact with the audience, visualization on the screen;

– constant self-control over the presenter’s behaviour;

– directing the communication.

Stage analysis and recommendations:

The trainer or the participants in the presentation training divide the criteria and groups are formed: one evaluates the scenario and the structure, the arguments and the information; the other makes recommendations on how to improve the presenter’s non-verbal behaviour, etc.

Websites for presentations

• TED – https://www.ted.com/

• TEDtalk – https://www.ted.com/talks

• Create + prepare slides – https://www.ted.com/participate/organize-a-local-tedx-event/tedx-organizer-guide/speakers-program/prepare-your-speaker/create-prepare-slides
• SlideShare – https://www.slideshare.net/
• Prezi – https://prezi.com/
• 10 Best Presentation Websites Alternatives, Caya, September 30, 2020, https://slidebean.com/blog/design-presentation-websites
• 10 Best Free Presentation Making Websites to Empower Your Presentations, https://focusky.com/learning-center/en/10-best-free-presentation-making-websites-to-empower-your-presentations/

Media rhetoric. Practical assignments

Simulation and role play. Creating an atmosphere close to the real one.

• Choose the show and the media – TV or radio.

• Analyse the topics, the presenters, the dialogue, some participants in advance. Present good and bad practices. Clarify traditions and specific features.

• Present roles. Reflect on the social and communicative roles.

• Participants: Have a preliminary conversation with the journalist, editors and team of the radio, TV or podcast.

• Specify the topics you will talk about. This is important to prepare by researching sources and selecting information.

• Ask for the questions to be sent to you written. This will allow you to write possible answers to each question.

Note that there may be changes as the matter actually proceeds.

• Do a rehearsal and record on your mobile phone.

• Listen to the recording.

• Make improvements.

• Don’t rehearse too much to block yourself or to avoid sounding rote.

Presenter/Leader Commitments:

• Formulate the questions.

• Identify topics.

• Coordinate with editors and producers.

• Coordinate preparation with participants.

Assignments to students:

Preparation stage:

Choose a popular show. Clarify the script, themes, genre, the role of the presenters, how to conduct and guide the dialogue, communicative and rhetorical techniques.

Assign roles. Give instructions to participants to prepare.

Implementation stage:

On the day of the simulation game, create an atmosphere close to the real one.

Briefly reiterate the directions and instructions.

Implement the simulation game.

Stage analysis and recommendations:

First: Participants evaluate themselves on the criteria: dynamics of the dialogue – relevant and effective answers – arguments – non-linguistic behaviour, etc.

Second: Students give their evaluation and recommendations.

Third: The instructor gives his/her evaluation and recommendations for improving rhetorical skills in a media environment.

Podcast. Practical assignments

The focus here is on the rhetorical and communicative aspects, but these are invariably related to the script, the overall concept, the multimodal content, the technical parameters, the genre and its place in the contemporary media ecosystem, etc.

The podcast is not thought of as a singular production, but as part of a concept and thematically linked subsequent podcasts. At the same time, each individual podcast is unique. Specific features are:

– it is listened to if it is audio presented in the respective platforms;

– it is listened to and watched if it is a video recording presented on the respective platforms.

Both types of podcasts are watched and listened to by a virtual audience that has different attitudes to perceiving information.

Unlike a speech delivered in front of a live audience or in a combination of live in a hall or outdoors and as a livestream, a podcast requires different skills. Preparing and implementing a podcast requires acquiring knowledge about the genre, format, audience, channel, media ecosystem, traditions, competition, etc.

It is important to mark the common elements for the beginning and the end in the podcast script.

The beginning includes a visual element for recognition and branding purposes. There is also a musical introduction.

The final captions and frames are most often related to copyright, sponsorship, funding, project activities and appeals.

There remains the actual part, which, although conditionally, is divided into:

Presentation of the participants with different communicative techniques.

Presentation of the topic directly or with another way of attracting attention, part of speech, quotation from a thought, presentation of the situation, etc.

First question. The aim is to intrigue the audience, to involve them, to arouse their interest.

The following questions have different purposes. One is for the purpose of maintaining the dynamics of the dialogue. The second ones are for the purpose of getting information in a logical sequence or according to the design and scenario of the podcast host. The third ones are for the purpose of becoming aware of a new focus of attention on the topic or subtopic. Other types of questions are possible from a media, communicative and rhetorical perspective.

Final question and answers. It is suggested that this question should guide toward completion and create an effect at the end.

Answers should be brief, interesting, summarizing. Possible rhetorical techniques are messages, generalizations, proverbs, aphorisms and maxims, quotations from literary works, etc.

End the podcast in an interesting way, creating an impression of the ending, using rhetorical techniques. This role can also be filled by the podcast host.

Assignments and recommendations:

• Step One: Briefly announce what a podcast is. The recommendations are to listen to and watch several podcasts, analyse their scripts, rhetorical techniques, dialogue dynamics, topics.

• The next step is assigning roles by the trainer, preparation time, implementing the podcast as a live training and then possibly recording.

• Comparing the preparation and the realization and analysis are important. They are the basis for forming specific skills by building on them.

The criteria for analysis may be:

• The way the questions are asked.

• The way the questions are asked.

• The dynamics of the dialogue.

• Script.

• Rhetorical and communicative techniques.

• Final realization.

• Genre features or novelties observed.

The criteria for analysis may be:

• The way the questions are asked.

• The way the questions are asked.

• The dynamics of the dialogue.

• Script.

• Rhetorical and communicative techniques.

• Final realization.

• Genre features or novelties observed.

Here is some useful information about podcasts, given in the article by Desislava Antova “Media podcasts in Bulgaria: types and peculiarities”: “The research on podcasts has been increasing over the years and here we mention only some of them, which are in the field of applied advice, analysis of the types of podcasts, the way of organizing, financing and positioning on the media market. Lionel Felix and Damien Stolarz, in a handbook, outline the parameters for optimizing performance in video blogs and podcasts, the new media tools for business communication (Felix, Lionel. & Stolarz, Damien 2006). Eric Nuzum also focuses on the applied elements, but also on the creative side of creating podcasts, especially interesting are the recommendations for creating audio stories (Audio Storytelling) (Nuzum 2019).

• Kalyam Islam focuses on studying the functions of podcasts in relation to training and ways of development (Islam 2007).

• Greg Cangialosi, Ryan Areline, Tim Bourquin, and Colette Vogele study business podcasts and focus on how to use marketing tools and measure success from podcasts (Cangialosi, Irelan, Bourquin, Vogele 2008).

• The place of podcasts and their functioning in the new media environment, in digital media and the new so-called “audio/aural cultures” (Aural Cultures) is analyzed by Dario Llinares, Nelly Fox, and Richard Berry (Llinares, Fox, Berry 2018).”

• Антова, Д. (2021). Медийните подкасти в България: видове и особености. колективна монография „Реториката и комуникациите през 21 век: теории, методи, практики”, 178-199, публикувана и онлайн в сайта на Института по реторика и комуникации, https://www.iorc.info/

Antova, D. (2021). Collective monograph “Rhetoric and communication in the 21st century: theories, methods, practices, 178-199, also published online on the website of the Institute of Rhetoric and Communication, https://www.iorc.info/.

Business Meeting. Practical assignments

Simulation game and communicative role. Creating an atmosphere close to the real one.

• Present the functions, scenario, rules, traditions, business etiquette and the relationship with corporate culture and business behaviour.

• Specify the business meeting topic, agenda items. This is important in order to prepare the arguments and texts, analyse the sources and select the information on a given occasion: announcement of positions in the organization, launch of a new product on the market, improvement of an online marketing campaign, etc.

• Assign roles: chair of the meeting, minute taker, participants based on positions in the organization. Present the specific tasks clearly to the participants.

Participant commitments.

• Prepare your business speech, business presentation or statement.

• Rehearse the presentation.

• Select the highlights.

• Decide what is essential and how to present it convincingly.

Assignments to students:

Preparation Stage: Choose what the reason for the business meeting is. Write down the agenda items.

Assign roles. Chair. Possible moderator. Minute taker. Participants. Give instructions to participants to prepare.

Implementation stage:

On the day of the simulation game, create an atmosphere close to the one of a real meeting in a modern business environment in an international corporation or a national company.

Briefly reiterate the directions and instructions to the chair/leader and to the participants in relation to their “status” and social role, clarify their commitments.

Implement the simulation game respecting the agenda, timing, business etiquette.

Stage analysis and recommendations:

First: Participants evaluate themselves on the criteria: dynamics of the dialogue in a business environment according to the business meeting format – chair’s guidance of the dialogue – participants’ giving relevant and effective answers – style – language – business etiquette – arguments – non-linguistic behaviour, etc.

Second. The lecturer gives his/her assessment and recommendations for improving rhetorical skills in a business environment.

A sample model for the preparation, implementation and evaluation of student work:

The aim is to develop skills for analysis and hence for future trainers based on basic concepts, structuring and ethic.

Figure 18. Sample model for preparation, implementation and evaluation of student participation in rhetoric simulation games

See the Assessment section at the end of the Rhetoric Online Course for more information.

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